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[edit] SENSORY PERCEPTION

Definition of "sense"

There is no firm agreement amongst neurologists as to exactly how many senses there are. The disagreements stem from a lack of consensus as to what the definition of a sense should be. Although school children are still routinely taught that there are five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste; a classification first devised by Aristotle), it is generally agreed that there are at least nine different senses in humans, and a minimum of two more observed in other organisms.
A broadly acceptable definition of a sense would be "a system that consists of a sensory cell type (or group of cell types) that respond to a specific kind of physical energy, and that correspond to a defined region (or group of regions) within the brain where the signals are received and interpreted". Where disputes arise is with regard to the exact classification of the various cell types and their mapping to regions of the brain.

List of senses

Using this definition several senses can be identified. This list begins with those five senses defined by Aristotle and hence probably most familiar to the reader.

Seeing or vision describes the ability to detect electromagnetic energy within the visible range (light) by the eye and the brain to interpret the image as "sight". There is disagreement as to whether or not this constitutes one, two or even three distinct senses. Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different receptors are responsible for the perception of colour (the frequency of light) and brightness (the energy of light). Some argue that the perception of depth also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded that this is really a cognitive (that is, post-sensory) function derived from having stereoscopic vision (two eyes) and is not a sensory perception as such.

Hearing or audition is the sense of sound perception and results from tiny hair fibres in the inner ear detecting the motion of a membrane which vibrates in response to changes in the pressure exerted by atmospheric particles within (at best) a range of 20 to 20000 Hz. Sound can also be detected as vibrations conducted through the body by tactition. Lower and higher frequencies than can be heard are detected this way only.

Taste or gustation is one of the two main "chemical" senses. It is well-known that there are at least four types of taste "bud" (receptor) on the tongue and hence, as should now be expected, there are anatomists who argue that these in fact constitute four or more different senses, given that each receptor conveys information to a slightly different region of the brain.
The four well-known receptors detect sweet, salt, sour, and bitter, although the receptors for sweet and bitter have not been conclusively identified. A fifth receptor, for a sensation called "umami", was first theorised in 1908 and its existence confirmed in 2000. The umami receptor detects the amino acid glutamate, a flavor commonly found in meat, and in artificial flavourings such as monosodium glutamate.
http://www.nature.com/neuro/press_release/nn0200.html

Smell or olfaction is the other "chemical" sense. Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory receptors, each binding to a particular molecular feature, according to current theory. The combination of features of the odor molecule makes up what we perceive as the molecule's smell. In the brain, olfaction is processed by the olfactory system. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from most other neurons in that they die and regenerate on a regular basis.
Note that in aquatic organisms there is essentially no difference between smell and taste.
The 2004 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (announced 4 October, 2004) was won by Richard Axel and Linda Buck for their work explaining olfaction, published first in a joint paper in 1991 that described the very large family of about one thousand genes for odorant receptors and how the receptors link to the brain.
http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2004/index.html

The remaining senses can be considered types of touch or physical feeling of the body (somatosensation).

Tactition is the sense of pressure perception, generally in the skin.

Thermoception is the sense of heat and the absence of heat (cold), also by the skin and including internal skin passages. It is also the first of the group of senses not identified explicitly by Aristotle. Again there is some disagreement about how many senses this actually represents--the thermoceptors in the skin are quite different from the homeostatic thermoceptors which provide feedback on internal body temperature. How warm or cold something feels does not only depend on temperature, but also on specific heat capacity and heat conductance; e.g., warm metal feels warmer than warm wood, and cold metal feels colder than cold wood, because metal has a higher thermal conductivity than wood. Wind feels cold because of the heat withdrawn for evaporation of sweat or other moisture, and because an isolating layer of warm air around the body blows away; however, in the case of hot air, wind makes it feel hotter, for a similar reason as the latter.

Nociception is the perception of pain. It can be classified as from one to three senses, depending on the classification method. The three types of pain receptors are cutaneous (skin), somatic (joints and bones) and visceral (body organs).

Equilibrioception is the perception of balance and is related to cavities containing fluid in the inner ear. There is some disagreement as to whether or not this also includes the sense of "direction" or orientation. However, as with depth perception earlier, it is generally regarded that "direction" is a post-sensory cognitive awareness.

Proprioception is the perception of body awareness and is a sense that people rely on enormously, yet are frequently not aware of. More easily demonstrated than explained, proprioception is the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. This can be demonstrated by anyone closing their eyes and waving their hand around. Assuming proper proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is, even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses).

Based on this outline and depending on the chosen method of classification, somewhere between 9 and 21 human senses have been identified. Additionally, there are some other candidate physiological experiences which may or may not fall within the above classification (for example the sensory awareness of hunger and thirst).
continued: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory

[edit] EXTRASENSORY PERCEPTION

ESP is most commonly called the "sixth sense." It is sensory information that an individual receives which comes beyond the ordinary five senses sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. It can provide the individual with information of the present, past, and future; as it seems to originate in a second, or alternate reality.

History:

The term "ESP" was used in 1870 by Sir Richard Burton. A French researcher, Dr. Paul Joire, in 1892 used the term ESP to describe the ability of person who had been hypnotized or were in a trance state to externally sense things without using their ordinary senses.
However, the phenomena of ESP activity has been indicated much earlier, some say even in Biblical times. Although there is no clear evidence as to the certainty of the phenomena it has attracted the attention and enthusiasm of many throughout the centuries.
In the 1920's a Munich ophthalmologist, Dr. Rudolph Tischner, used ESP in describing the "externalization of sensibility." Then in the 1930s the American parapsychologist J. B. Rhine popularized the term to include psychic phenomena similar to sensory functions. Rhine was among the first parapsychologists to test ESP phenomena in the laboratory.
The first systematic study of ESP was conducted in 1882, when the Society for Psychical Research was founded n London. The journals of this society Proceedings and Journal were published as well as other publications in the United States and the Netherlands. Soon other countries were reporting similar findings.
However, these first studies of ESP were rarely experimental. The studies consisted of mostly spontaneous incidents that were located. Many of the individuals studied were self-claimed "sensitives" or psychics. Rarely were they examined under anything resembling laboratory conditions. The researchers conducting the examinations resembled prosecuting lawyers. The subjects were bombarded with questions, those standing up the best were judged creditable.

The Rhine experiments:

The first card-guessing ESP experiments were conducted by Rhine at Duke University in 1930. The cards consisted of five designs, now called ESP symbols, a square, a circle, a plus sign, a five pointed star, and a set of three wavy lines. The symbols were printed singly, in black ink, on cards resembling playing cards.
In the classic Rhine experiments on ESP, the subject tries to guess or "call" the order of the five symbols when they are randomly arranged in a deck of 25 ESP cards. The likelihood of calling a card correctly by chance is one in five. Therefore, it is possible to calculate how often a particular score is likely to occur by chance in a given number of calls. It was Rhine argument that when his subjects made high scores that could be expected by chance only once in a thousand tries, or once in a million, they displayed "extrachance" results, or ESP.
The early experiments faced several criticisms. Two were automatically dismissed: (1) The statistics were unsound which was refuted by the president of the American Mathematical Association. (2) That ESP is physical impossibility which begs the question.
Several appropriate criticisms were accepted by Rhine which he used to improve his experiments. Examples are: (1) There may have been sensory cues. An example of this is that if a strong light shined on the back of the ESP cards, it might be possible to see the symbol through the back. Currently to avoid this possibility the target card is covered by an oblique shielding, or kept far from the subject. (2) An experimenter that knows the target might whisper it or otherwise give a cue to the subject. Presently no one in contact with the subject knows the target. (3) More hits might be recorded than actually occurred.. Currently hits and responses are recorded by machine or by someone not knowing either.
Three criticism remain: (1) The "file drawer" effect. Only favorable results are published. Larger experimental data like one in a million make this unlikely. (2) Results are inconsistent and not repeatable. This can be remedied statistically. (3) Charges of fraud. Can be refuted by other reputable investigators obtaining similar results.
There was a finding which seemed puzzling until better understood. While some label it "missing-ESP" it might be thought of as reverse-ESP too. It is found among subject who dislike ESP. Even though the subjects were consciously trying to achieve good scores, they scored lower than chance. An unconscious factor seemed to come into play here. Experimenters have found they can predict higher scores for some groups (for example, those who are interested and relaxed), and lower scores for other groups (those who show fear, negativity, or boredom). The factor of missing-ESP indicates why ESP data is unreliable.
More recently computer games are increasingly being used to test ESP. The computer is programmed so that a random series determines the targets, and the subjects attempt to outguess the computer.
Another factor that researchers and experimenters must watched for in ESP and all psychical experiments is preconceived or previously learned knowledge. This concerns any knowledge which might influence the subject's activity. For example, a person might say she sensed her son would telephone her on that certain day at that specific time. If the son had previously called her in such a fashion, then her sensation must be suspect for it might have been based upon knowledge of her son's previous performance. A person might strongly feel that he would receive an email message from a friend on a certain day, and he does; but, can this be considered a ESP phenomenon considering that this person had not head from the other person for sometime and was expecting the message. The point being made is that when dealing with psychic phenomena all factors must be considered when examining the performance.

ESP in General:

In New Frontiers of the Mind (1937) Rhine said that ESP experiments were changing the way people thought the mind sensed information. Historically learned people held the human mind received information through the ordinary five senses, and that therefore, the mind is subject to the laws of the mechanical world. Laboratory tests have attempted to determine the existence of ESP, and discover the physical mechanism by which it operates. "The mind has been equated with the brain, and scientists search to discover how ESP registers in the brain/mind."
However, increasing evidence is demonstrating that ESP does exist, but it cannot be explained or quantified by physical laws; and furthermore, that the mind (consciousness) and the brain are two separate entities. Simultaneously, research in quantum physics points to the existence of a second, nonmaterial universe. So, the time is fast approaching when Western scientists must come to terms with the Eastern mystical concept: "that an extrasensory force exists in another realty, and intersects and integrates with the physical world."
In function, ESP is dissimilar to the ordinary senses. There is no location like governs the other senses which receive information through various parts of the body; and it is not dependent on any of the other five senses. ESP is independent of such factors as geography, time, intelligence, age, or education.
ESP has been given various names. In the 19th century is was called "cryptesthesia," later it was labeled "relesthesia" which since became clairvoyance, or "seeing in the distance." It was Rhine who coined the term "general extrasensory perception" (GESP) to include both telepathy and clairvoyance. Later the term psi was designated to cover ESP and PK.
It was researcher Lousia E. Rhine who proposed the theory that ESP starts in the unconscious, a storehouse of memories, hopes and fears. At this point a contact is made between the objective world and the center of the mind. The person remains unaware of this contact until or unless the information is brought to the conscious level. Also, the psychiatrist Carl G. Jung proposed a similar theory that the conscious mind has subliminal psychic access to the collective unconscious, a vast repository of accumulative wisdom and experience of the human race.
Others theories attempting to explain ESP have been produced. One such theory involved macrophages, cells present in connective tissue, lymph nodes, and bone marrow and tied to nerve endings. The person thought these might be the body's ESP organs, sending and receiving impressions below the normal perceptive level. Such cells are more sensitive and active during childhood, but deteriorate without proper diet.
Some theories involve the discussion of two subconsciousnesses, the second one sometimes called the superconsciousness, soul, subliminal self, transcendent ego, dream self and several other terms. The argument rest on the hypothesis that two realities exist, the physical one and a second one. ESP can occur when there is a integration between both realities. This occurs infrequently only when the barriers between the realities are broken which does not happen often because if it did all unconscious thought would flood and overflow the conscious mind. A condition which the mind could not withstand.
When considering types or forms that ESP might take dreams become an important factor, especially in relationship to the theory of two realities. Upon this basis dreams were separated into two categories: realistic, vivid having detailed imagery of the information conveyed, and intuition which includes "gut feelings." forebodings, and premonitions; and unrealistic dreams containing fantastical imagery and symbols. Hallucinations that relayed visual and auditory information also were included. Rhine suggested the reason for dreams being efficient carriers of ESP messages is because the barriers surrounding the conscious mind appear to be thinnest.
It has been discovered that the natural tendency for ESP in individuals can be distorted by previous prejudices, thoughts, and conditioning. Likewise, inaccurate ESP messages may be the result of distortions and blockages of the conscious mind. However, in times of crisis such as accidents and death of loved ones, ESP messages seem to occur spontaneously. It is theorized that perhaps trauma and shock enable negative information to penetrate the subliminal barriers more easily than happy information.
There are theories concerning individuals who possess ESP and how they acquired this ability. One theory holds that some people such as seers, prophets and diviners were bore with the gift which was inherited by their relatives. Another theory hold that it is` a primordial sense which has decreased in populations as their cultures advanced. Still another theory claims ESP is a supersense which evolves in the nervous system. Psychical research does support the theory that everyone is born with ESP capability, though some may possess more than others. Most people have experienced at least one ESP experience in their lives. It was found in a survey published in 1987 by the University of Chicago's National Opinion Research Council, that 67 percent of all adult Americans believed they have experienced ESP. Eleven years earlier the figure was 58 percent. It was thought the increase indicates an increased acceptance of the possibility of ESP among the general public. A.G.H.
http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/e/esp_extrasensory_perception.html
Find out if you have ESP: http://www.icestorm.net/free/game/index.shtml

[edit] EMPATHY

WHAT IS EMPATHY?

Empathy is the ability to "read" and understand people and be in-tune with or resonate with others, voluntarily or involuntarily of one's empath capacity. Empathy often works alongside with telepathy, and this mutually enhances the strength of these abilities. Empaths have the ability to scan another's psyche for thoughts and feelings or for past, present, and future life occurrences. Many empaths are unaware of how this actually works, and have long accepted that they were "sensitive" to others.
Empathy is a "feeling" of another’s true emotions to a point where an empath can relate to that person by sensing true feelings that run deeper than those portrayed on the surface. People commonly put on a "show" of expression. This is a learned trait of hiding authentic expression in an increasingly demanding society.An empath can sense the truth behind the "cover" and will act compassionately to help that person express him/herself, thus making them feel at ease and not so desperately alone. It’s as though the empath truly understands, and, in many cases, they do through personal "firsthand" experience.
Empaths experience empathy towards family, children, friends, close associates, complete strangers, pets, plants and inanimate objects. Empathy is not held by time or space. Thus, an empath can feel the emotions of people and things at a distance. Some are empathic towards animals (the "Horse Whisperer"), to nature, to the planetary system, to mechanical devices or to buildings. Others will have a combination of the above.Empaths are highly "sensitive". This is the term commonly used in describing one's abilities (sensitivity) to another’s emotions and feelings. Empaths have a deep sense of "knowing" that accompanies empathy and are often compassionate, considerate, and understanding of others. Everyone has this natural ability; however, many never choose to utilize their ability and/or are completely unaware of their empathic ability.
There are also varying levels of strength in empaths which may be related to the individual’s awareness of self, understanding of the powers of empathy, and/or the acceptance or non-acceptance of empathy by those associated with them, including family and peers. Generally, those who are empathic grow up with these tendencies and do not learn about them until later in life.Empathy is genetic, inherent in our DNA, and passed from generation to generation. It is studied both by traditional science and alternative healing practitioners. When we combine and comprehend the two, we will be witness to incredible feats for human-kindness. Slowly but surely, this is occurring.
Empathy has both biological/genetic and spiritual aspects. Many will claim that empathy and telepathy are strictly of a "spiritual nature". This is an injustice; just as it is an injustice to focus only on the physical nature of empathy. For indeed, empathy has very physical, mental and spiritual implications and attributes.It is not unusual for empaths to have experienced many things in their lives. Often many of their life experiences could be considered rather extreme, adventurous, or daring, allowing empaths to be open and receptive to much more. Whereas some people’s lives may be considered rather "soft or easy" and even enviable, that of an empath is often more than just challenging, with many a major roller coaster ride thrown in here and there!
Empaths often possess the ability to sense others on many different levels. From their position in observing what another is saying, feeling and thinking, they come to understand another. They can become very proficient at reading another person’s body language and/or study intently the eye movements. While this in itself is not empathy, it is a side-shoot that comes from being observant of others. In a sense, empaths have a complete communication package.While there is much we don’t yet understand about how empathy works, we do have some information. Everything has an energetic vibration or frequency and an empath is able to sense these vibrations and recognize even the subtlest changes undetectable to the naked eye or the five senses.
Words of expression hold an energetic pattern that originates from the speaker. They have a specific meaning particular to the speaker. Behind that expression is a power or "force-field", better known as "energy". For example, hate often brings about an intense feeling that immediately accompanies the word. The word "hate" becomes strengthened with the speaker’s feeling. It is that person’s feelings (energy) that are picked up by empaths, whether the words are spoken, thought or just felt without verbal or bodily expression.
from http://groups.msn.com/TheWanderersGate

[edit] INTUITION

"It occurred to me by intuition, and music was the driving force behind
that intuition. My discovery was the result of musical perception."
(When asked about his theory of relativity)
- Albert Einstein